Method to realize fast silicon-on-insulator (SOI) optical device

ABSTRACT

A fast silicon-on-insulator (SOI) waveguide-based optical device enhanced with minority charge carrier lifetime modifiers enables faster modulation speeds in optical attenuators, optical intensity/phase-modulators, and optical switches whose operation principles are based on free-carrier injection into a waveguide. The waveguide is doped with gold (Au) or platinum (Pt) such that when a drive voltage (applied to the device) is turned off, the minority charge carriers rapidly annihilate because gold doping reduces the minority carrier lifetime, which improves transient characteristics of the optical device. Integration of the fast active device with passive devices such as WDM demultiplexers/multiplexers on the SOI optical waveguide platform enables realization of monolithic integrated optical components for advanced functionality such as dynamic spectral equalization.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a Continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.10/061,981, filed Jan. 31, 2002.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention is related to photonic devices and, in particularto integrated optical circuits.

2. Background Information

Silicon, as an electronic material, is widely used to realize electronicintegrated circuits. Over ninety percent of integrated circuitsfabricated worldwide use silicon as the starting material. It is wellknown that the highest operational frequency a silicon based electricalsemiconductor device may have is limited by the speed at which thedevice switches. The switching speed of a bipolar semiconductor deviceis related to the “minority carrier life times” in the active area ofthe silicon crystals that makes the device work. A minority carrier isone whose equilibrium concentration (in silicon) is less than themajority carrier. For example, in N-type silicon, holes are the minoritycarriers and in P-type silicon, electrons are the minority carriers. Theminority carrier lifetime is the average time interval between thegeneration and recombination of a minority carrier

The minority carrier lifetime can have a pronounced effect on theoperation of a P-N junction semiconductor device because the minoritycarrier lifetime determines the switching response time. By introducingmore recombination centers, the rate of recombination process increases.This allows the annihilation of generated/injected minority carrierswithin a shorter period of time, which increases the switching speed.

The number of recombination centers (or “trap centers”) in asemiconductor (e.g., silicon) is partially dependent on the presence ofimpurities creating energy levels inside the energy band gap. Theefficiency of trap centers is characterized by capture cross-section andcarriers capture rate. The most efficient traps are those having theirenergy levels close to the middle of band gap. Such recombinationcenters are called deep level recombination centers or traps.

In the mainstream silicon semiconductor industry, minority carrierlifetime modifiers for silicon are gold and platinum impurities andsurface defects caused by high-energy electron irradiation. Impuritiescould be introduced into semiconductor by either diffusion on ionimplantation.

Technologies currently exist that allow transporting of electronic datain optical form from a data source to data destination over a longdistance without intermediate optical-electrical conversion. As moretechnologies emerge and current technologies mature, several functionspreviously performed in the electrical domain are migrating into opticaldomain functionalities.

Photonic integrated circuit fabrication technologies also are emergingand maturing. For example, among the several different planar waveguideplatforms such as silica-on-silicon, lithium niobate (LiNbO₃), galliumarsenide (GaAs), indium phosphide (InP), and polymer,silicon-on-insulator (SOI) is a promising substrate material for therealization of integrated optoelectronic devices, including both passiveand active optical waveguide device structures.

An advantage of SOI planar waveguide platform is that the light-guidingmedium is silicon, which is a semiconductor material offering verymature integrated circuit technology. Silicon is transparent in the longwavelength region (greater than 1.2 micron), which is of interest infiber optic telecommunication. SOI already offers several benefits forscaling electronic device performance, by eliminating/reducing thesubstrate capacitance. In addition, with the commercially available 0.18micron silicon complementary metal oxide semiconductor (Si CMOS)processes offered by foundry providers (e.g., TSMC in San Jose, Calif.,and others), ten Gigabits per second (Gbps) lightwave circuits such aslaser drivers and pre-amplifiers are possible. Furthermore, the abilityto integrate germanium in silicon allows formation of long-wavelength(greater than 1.2 micron) photodetectors in silicon. Therefore, trueintegration of optical, electronic, and optoelectronic devices ispossible on an SOI platform.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

In the drawings, like reference numbers generally indicate identical,functionally similar, and/or structurally equivalent elements. Thedrawing in which an element first appears is indicated by the leftmostdigit(s) in the reference number, in which:

FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an optical device on an SOI platformaccording to embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of a dynamic gain equalizer according toembodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of system according to embodiments of thepresent invention;

FIG. 4 is a perspective view of a Mach-Zehnder-based fast opticalmodulator/switch according to embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 5 is a flow chart illustrating an approach to manufacturing theoptical device in FIG. 1; and

FIG. 6 is a flowchart illustrating an approach to operating an opticaldevice according to embodiments of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE ILLUSTRATED EMBODIMENTS

A fast optical device on an SOI platform is described in detail herein.In the following description, numerous specific details, such asparticular processes, materials, devices, and so forth, are presented toprovide a thorough understanding of embodiments of the invention. Oneskilled in the relevant art will recognize, however, that the inventioncan be practiced without one or more of the specific details, or withother methods, components, etc. In other instances, well-knownstructures or operations are not shown or described in detail to avoidobscuring embodiments of various embodiments of the invention.

Some parts of the description will be presented using terms such aswaveguide, silicon, irradiation, doping, implantation, and so forth.These terms are commonly employed by those skilled in the art to conveythe substance of their work to others skilled in the art.

Other parts of the description will be presented in terms of operationsperformed by a computer system, using terms such as accessing,determining, counting, transmitting, and so forth. As is well understoodby those skilled in the art, these quantities and operations take theform of electrical, magnetic, or optical signals capable of beingstored, transferred, combined, and otherwise manipulated throughmechanical and electrical components of a computer system; and the term“computer system” includes general purpose as well as special purposedata processing machines, systems, and the like, that are standalone,adjunct or embedded.

Various operations will be described as multiple discrete blocksperformed in turn in a manner that is most helpful in understanding theinvention. However, the order in which they are described should not beconstrued to imply that these operations are necessarily order dependentor that the operations be performed in the order in which the blocks arepresented.

Reference throughout this specification to “one embodiment” or “anembodiment” means that a particular feature, structure, process, block,or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment isincluded in at least one embodiment of the present invention. Thus, theappearances of the phrases “in one embodiment” or “in an embodiment” invarious places throughout this specification are not necessarily allreferring to the same embodiment. Furthermore, the particular features,structures, or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner inone or more embodiments.

FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an optical device 100 according toembodiments of the present invention, which may be formed on an SOIplatform having an insulator layer 102 of silicon dioxide (e.g., SiO₂,glass) formed on an intrinsic silicon (Si) layer 104 and a secondintrinsic Si layer 106 formed on the insulator layer 102. Methods forfabricating a SOI platform are well known. For example, the insulatorlayer 102 may be grown on the two intrinsic Si layers 104 and 106. Theintrinsic Si layers 104 and 106 can be bonded together using waferfusion. The intrinsic Si layer 106 is subsequently thinned to thedesired thickness, using chemical processes, for example. In thisembodiment, the SOI platform is commonly referred to as abond-and-etchback-silicon-on-insulator (BESOI) substrate.

Alternatively, oxygen may be implanted into an intrinsic Si layer at awell-defined depth (controlled by implant energy). The intrinsic Silayer may then be annealed to form the SiO₂ layer 102. In thisembodiment, the SOI platform is commonly referred to as a separation byimplanted oxygen (SIMOX) SOI substrate.

A waveguide 108 is formed in the intrinsic Si layer 106. The opticaldevice 100 includes a region 110 doped with P-type material and a region112 doped with N-type material, which forms a semiconductor diode. TheP-doped region 110 may be in contact with an anode 114 and the N-dopedregion 112 may be in contact with a cathode 116. The waveguide 108 isdoped with gold (Au) or platinum (Pt) atoms. Techniques for forming thewaveguide 108 are well known. Techniques for doping the region 110 dopedwith P-type material and the region 112 doped with N-type material, aswell as for doping the waveguide 108 with Au or Pt atoms include ionimplantation, diffusion from spin-on solutions, or other current orfuture techniques.

In operation, when a positive potential is applied to the P-doped region110 and a negative potential is applied to the N-doped region 112, thediode is forward biased. When the diode is forward biased and an opticalsignal is coupled into the waveguide 108, the P-doped region 110 and theN-doped region 112 inject free carriers into the intrinsic Si layer 106and the waveguide 108, where optical mode propagates.

The refractive index perturbation due to free carrier dispersion effectis a complex number, with the real part of the complex valuerepresenting optical phase shift and the imaginary part representing theincrease in optical propagation losses due to photon absorption by freecharge carriers. The free carrier dispersion effect is described in afirst order approximation by the following relations, which descend fromthe classical Drude model:Δn=(e ²λ²/8π² c ² ε ₀ n ₀)[(b _(e)(ΔN _(e))^(1.05) /m _(e)*)+(b _(h)(ΔN_(h))^(0.8) /m _(h)*)]  (Equation 1)Δα=(e ³λ²/4π² c ³ε₀ n ₀)[(b _(e)*(ΔN _(e))^(1.05)/μ_(e) m _(e)*²)+(b_(h)*(b _(h)*(ΔN _(h))^(0.8)/μ_(h) m _(h)*²)](Equation 2)

where Δn and Δa represent real refractive index and the absorptioncoefficient variations, respectively, n₀ is the nominal index ofrefraction for intrinsic Si, e is the electronic charge, c is the speedof light, ε₀ is the permittivity of free space, μ_(e) and m_(e)*, andμ_(h) and m_(h)* are the electron and hole mobilities and effectivemasses, respectively, and b_(e), b_(e)*, b_(h) and b_(h)* are fittingparameters.

The amount of phase shift (Φ) caused by free charge carriers because ofthe free carrier plasma optical effect is given by:Φ=(2π/λ)(ΔnL)  (Equation 3)

where Φ is the phase shift, λ is the wavelength of the light, and L isthe optical path along the free charge carrier region in the wavelengthelement 108.

Thus, to summarize, free carrier injection into intrinsic Si causes achange both in the real and the imaginary part of the refractive indexof the intrinsic Si due to free carrier dispersion (or free carrierplasma) effect. The imaginary part of the refractive index incrementcauses change in optical absorption coefficient, while real part of therefractive index increment causes optical phase shift.

The addition of gold (platinum) impurities makes the removal of injectedcarriers from the waveguide 108 faster, after forward bias is turnedoff. Therefore, gold (platinum) doping of the waveguide provides forfaster transition form “ON” state to “OFF” state of the device.

The optical device 100 may have several embodiments. According to oneembodiment, the optical device 100 may be a fast variable opticalattenuator, which attenuates an optical signal passing through it. FIG.2 shows an example system 200 according to an embodiment of the presentinvention in which finer control of EDFA spectral gain equalization maybe achieved using the optical device 100 as a variable opticalattenuator, which equalizes optical energy distribution across multiplechannels.

It is well known that optical signals coming from separate sources mayhave differing amplitudes. When optical signals from a number ofchannels are multiplexed together to provide a single multiplexedoptical signal, the optical signals of different channels may exhibitthe same or similar non-uniformity in amplitudes. Moreover, when themultiplexed optical signal is amplified using an optical amplifier, forexample an erbium doped fiber amplifier (EDFA), the optical amplifieramplifies certain channels more than others as determined by the gainshape of the EDFA. Typically, an uncompensated EDFA has a gain shapethat exhibits a strong gain peak at the 1530 nm wavelength and avariation of over five to ten dB in the gain at 1530 nm and 1560 nm. Intypical terrestrial fiber optic links, optical channels traverse acascade of several EDFAs, from source to destination. The cascade ofEDFAs causes more pronounced gain imbalance by amplifying the EDFA gainshape with each successive pass through an amplifier. Hence, gainbalancing or gain equalization over the wavelength spectrum range ofinterest may be performed at each EDFA.

Typically, in commercial EDFA devices, gain equalization or gainbalancing is performed with passive filter devices such as long-periodfiber gratings that are embedded within the gain block of the EDFA. Thegratings have the inverse spectral response variation as the EDFA,thereby enabling the EDFA as a whole to exhibit flat wavelengthresponse. However, such a system is not able to accommodate wavelengthdivision multiplexing (WDM) channel spacing reductions from two hundredGHz down to one hundred GHz, as well as proposed fifty GHz andtwenty-five GHz systems.

In the example system 200, an optical amplifier 202 (e.g., an EDFA)amplifies an incoming multiple channel optical signal (e.g., wavelengthsλ₀–λ_(n)), a demultiplexer 204 (e.g., a WDM demultiplexer) separates themultiple channel optical signal (λ₀–λ_(n)) into n single channels (e.g.,wavelengths λ₀, λ_(1,) λ₁, and λ_(n)) n variable optical attenuators(VOA) 206, 208, 210, and 212 adjust the gain of the n single channels(e.g., wavelengths λ₀, λ₁, λ₁, and λ_(n)), and a multiplexer 214combines the adjusted n single channels (e.g., wavelengths λ₀, λ₁, λ₁,and λ_(n)), into an outgoing multiple channel optical signal (λ₀–λ_(n))216. Optionally, an optical amplifier 220 amplifies the outgoingmultiple channel optical signal (λ₀–λ_(n)) 216.

According to an embodiment of the present invention, the attenuation ofeach VOA 206, 208, 210, and 212 may electronically set by the currentdrive into the VOA 206, 208, 210, and 212. Alternatively, a digitalsignal may be applied to each VOA 206, 208, 210, and 212 to obtain apass-through optical switch that could be turned “on” or “off” byapplying current to the electrodes.

This and other embodiments may be used to realize a monolithicintegrated optical device that performs the function of separating thedifferent wavelengths from an optical input, attenuating or switchingeach channel by a fixed or dynamically variable amount, and thencombining the different wavelengths onto a single output. Alternatively,the monolithic optical device may be implemented as a standalone opticalcomponent or as a sub-component within an optical subsystem comprisingadditional components such as optical taps, detectors, and feedbackcontrol circuits. This embodiment may be used to perform dynamicspectral equalization, for example.

For example, the demultiplexer 204, the array of n fast VOAs or n fastswitches 206, 208, 210, and 212, and the multiplexer 214 may bemonolithically integrated onto an SOI platform (e.g., a BESOI platformor a SIMOX platform). Either or both the demultiplexer 204 and/or themultiplexer 214 may be realized as an optical waveguide device (e.g., anarrayed waveguide grating (AWG), a phased-array waveguide grating) onthe same layer (e.g., 106) of the SOI platform as the n fast VOAs or nfast switches 206, 208, 210, and 212. The demultiplexer 204 may becoupled to the array of n fast VOAs or n fast switches 206, 208, 210,and 212 via waveguide elements 250, 252, 254, and 256, respectively, andthe multiplexer 214 may be coupled to the array of n fast VOAs or n fastswitches 206, 208, 210, and 212, and via waveguide elements 260, 262,264, and 266, respectively.

Because the demultiplexer 204 and/or the multiplexer 214 are passiveoptical devices, the layer 106 need not be implanted with Au (or Pt).Hence, the top layer 106 in the SOI platform may be selectivelyimplanted with Au (Pt) in the regions of the fast optical device(attenuator/switch), while leaving the regions of the passive opticaldevice free from Au (or Pt). This embodiment may be used to realize alow-loss passive device.

Monolithic integration of the passive and active devices on the same SOIplatform as described above is advantageous in that one can eliminateadditional optical loss and expensive optical alignment between thedemultiplexer 204 and/or the multiplexer 214 and the n fast VOAs or nfast switches 206, 208, 210, and 212. Furthermore, monolithicintegration enables a compact form-factor optical device with thefunctionality and performance of an optical subsystem.

With emerging optical networks where optical wavelength channels areenvisioned to be added or dropped dynamically, dynamic gain changescaused at least in part by the interplay between the large upper statelifetime of the erbium ions in an EDFA and the optical signal causelarge gain fluctuations at the output of the EDFA when several channelsare switched in or out of the EDFA. Such gain dynamics when multipliedover EDFA cascades cause lower signal-to-noise ratios (SNR) and severesystem penalties for some or all of the channels.

FIG. 3 shows an example system 300 according to an embodiment of thepresent invention in which n VOAs 302, 304, 306, and 310 adjust theamplitude of n single channels (e.g., wavelengths λ₀, λ₁, λ₁, and λ_(n))to provide uniform energy distribution across channels afteramplification by n EDFAs 312, 314, 316, and 318 to a multiplexer 320 torealize a fast dynamic gain balanced system.

The optical device 100 may be a fast optical phase modulator implementedin a Mach-Zehnder interferometer to encode (i.e. “modulate”) an opticalcarrier with electrical data. FIG. 4 illustrates an example fast opticalmodulator 400 according to an embodiment of the present invention. Thefast optical modulator 400 may include two arms 402 and 404 each havinga gold-doped waveguide 406 and 407, respectively, on an SOI substrate408 according to embodiments of the present invention. The fast opticalmodulator 400 also includes contacts 410 to receive an electricalsignal.

For purposes of explanation assume that the arm 402 is a reference arm,which has no phase shift, and that the arm 404 experiences phase shift.When a light beam is propagated through the fast optical modulator 400,interference occurs between the phase modulated and non-phase modulatedportions of the light beam causing constructive and destructiveinterference in the light waves that propagate out of the fast opticalmodulator 400. Accordingly, this changes the amplitude of the light thatpasses through the fast optical modulator 400. The speed at which theamplitude of the light changes is based on the speed at which thecarrier density in the waveguide 407 changes. Because the waveguide 407is doped with Au, the amplitude of the light may be able to switch atspeeds greater than about one hundred MHz up to about one GHz or more.This is because the Au (or Pt) dopant reduces the minority carrierlifetime of the waveguide 407 and the carrier density changes veryrapidly, which enables very rapid amplitude modulation of the lightpassing through the example fast optical modulator 400.

According to an embodiment, the optical device 100 may be a fast opticalswitch implemented in a Mach-Zehnder interferometer. Switching occurswhen the fast optical modulator 400 is turned “on” or “off.”

FIG. 5 is a flowchart illustrating a process 500 for making an opticaldevice according to embodiments of the present invention. Of course, theprocess 500 is only an example process and other processes may be used.

A block 502, defines a waveguide element pattern in an SOI substrate,via any well-known or proprietary photolithographic technique, forexample.

A block 504 removes selective portions of the SOI substrate (e.g., alongportions of the pattern to form one or more waveguide elements), usingwell-known or proprietary reactive ion etching techniques, for example.

A block 506 smoothes the etched portions, using well known, orproprietary after-etching techniques, for example.

A block 508 deposits a layer of oxide in the waveguide elements ofinterest, using well known or proprietary plasma enhanced chemical vapordeposition (PECVD) techniques, for example.

A block 510 opens windows in the PECVD oxide layer for phosphorousimplantation.

A block 512 implants phosphorous in the waveguide elements of interestvia the windows opened for phosphorous implantation.

A block 514 wet etches the waveguide elements of interest to removePECVD oxide.

A block 516 repeats operations performed in the block 508 (e.g., againdeposits oxide in the waveguide elements of interest, using well-knownor proprietary plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD)techniques, for example).

A block 518 opens windows in the PECVD oxide layer for boronimplantation.

A block 520 implants boron in the waveguide elements of interest via thewindows opened for boron implantation.

A block 522 repeats operations performed in the block 514 (e.g., wetetches the waveguide elements of interest to remove PECVD oxide).

A block 524 anneals the waveguide elements of interest to activate theboron and/or phosphorous implants.

A block 526 forms a semiconductor diode on the SOI substrate. Accordingto embodiments of the present invention, the semiconductor diode isformed by doping portions of the SOI substrate with P-type material andN-type material in a well known manner using ion implantation, diffusionfrom spin-on solutions, or other current or future techniques.

A block 528 repeats operations performed in the block 508 (e.g., againdeposits a layer of oxide in the waveguide elements of interest, usingwell known or proprietary plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition(PECVD) techniques, for example).

A block 530 opens windows in the PECVD oxide layer for gold (Au) orplatinum (Pt) doping.

A block 532 dopes the waveguide with gold (Au) or platinum (Pt).According to embodiments of the present invention, the waveguide elementof interest is doped with gold (Au) or platinum (Pt) in a well knownmanner using ion implantation, diffusion from spin-on solutions, orother current or future techniques.

A block 534 wet etches the waveguide elements of interest to removePECVD oxide.

A block 536 repeats operations performed in the block 508 (e.g., againdeposits oxide in the waveguide elements of interest, using well-knownor proprietary plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD)techniques, for example).

A block 538 opens windows in the PECVD oxide layer for contacts.

A block 540 metalizes the contacts in a well-known manner.

A block 542 anneals the contacts to form ohmic contacts, such as theanode 114 and the cathode 116.

FIG. 6 is a flowchart of a method 600 of operating an optical deviceaccording to embodiments of the present invention.

A block 602 forward biases a semiconductor diode formed on an SOIsubstrate. In one embodiment, the semiconductor diode is forward biasedby applying a positive potential to P-type material doped on the SOIsubstrate and by applying a negative potential to N-type material dopedon the SOI substrate.

A block 604 couples an optical signal to a gold (Au) or platinum (Pt)doped waveguide element formed on the SOI substrate.

A block 606 injects free carriers into the waveguide element to changethe amplitude of the optical signal propagating in the gold-dopedwaveguide element. In one embodiment, the rate of change in amplitude ofthe optical signal may be greater than approximately one hundred MHz.

Of course, the present invention is not limited to the embodimentsillustrated herein. For example, the optical device 100 may beimplemented in any voltage-controlled, carrier-injected optical device.Additionally, there may be one or more multiplexers, demultiplexers,optical amplifiers, and fast attenuators cascaded together, whoseimplementation will be readily understood from reading the descriptionherein.

Embodiments of the invention can be implemented using hardware,software, or a combination of hardware and software. Suchimplementations include state machines and application specificintegrated circuits (ASICs). In implementations using software, thesoftware may be stored on a computer program product (such as an opticaldisk, a magnetic disk, a floppy disk, etc.) or a program storage device(such as an optical disk drive, a magnetic disk drive, a floppy diskdrive, etc.).

The above description of illustrated embodiments of the invention is notintended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise formsdisclosed. While specific embodiments of, and examples for, theinvention are described herein for illustrative purposes, variousequivalent modifications are possible within the scope of the invention,as those skilled in the relevant art will recognize. These modificationscan be made to the invention in light of the above detailed description.

The terms used in the following claims should not be construed to limitthe invention to the specific embodiments disclosed in the specificationand the claims. Rather, the scope of the invention is to be determinedentirely by the following claims, which are to be construed inaccordance with established doctrines of claim interpretation.

1. An apparatus, comprising: a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) platformcomprising: a first intrinsic silicon layer; an insulator layer disposedon the first intrinsic silicon layer; and a second intrinsic siliconlayer disposed on the insulator layer; a semiconductor diode disposed onthe SOI platform; and a Mach-Zehnder interferometer disposed on the SOIplatform, the Mach-Zehnder interferometer having a first and secondwaveguide at least one of which is doped with gold (Au) atoms and/orplatinum (Pt) atoms as impurities.
 2. The apparatus of claim 1, whereinthe SOI platform is bond-and-etchback-silicon-on-insulator (BESOI)substrate.
 3. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein SOI platform is aseparation by implanted oxygen (SIMOX) SOI substrate.
 4. The apparatusof claim 1, further comprising electrical contacts disposed on the SOIplatform.
 5. A system, comprising: a demultiplexer coupled to an outputof the optical amplifier; and a set of optical devices coupled to thedemultiplexer, an individual optical device in the set of opticaldevices having a waveguide and a semiconductor diode disposed on asilicon-on-insulator (SOI) platform, wherein the waveguide which isdoped with gold (Au) atoms and/or platinum (Pt) atoms as impurities. 6.The system of claim 5, further comprising a multiplexer coupled to theset of optical devices.
 7. The system of claim 6, further comprising anoptical amplifier coupled to the multiplexer.
 8. The system of claim 5,wherein the SOI platform is bond-and-etchback-silicon-on-insulator(BESOI) substrate.
 9. The system of claim 5, wherein the SOI platform isa separation by implanted oxygen (SIMOX) SOI substrate.
 10. The systemof claim 5, wherein the demultiplexer comprises an arrayed waveguidegrating (AWG).
 11. A method, comprising: forward biasing a semiconductordiode disposed in or on a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) substrate; couplingan optical signal to a gold-doped and/or platinum-doped waveguideelement disposed in or on the SOI substrate; injecting free carriersinto the waveguide element to change the amplitude of the optical signalpropagating in the gold-doped and/or platinum-doped waveguide element, arate of change in amplitude of the optical signal being greater thanapproximately one hundred MHz.
 12. The method of claim 11, whereinforward biasing the semiconductor diode comprises applying a positivepotential to a P-doped region formed in or on the SOI substrate.
 13. Themethod of claim 12, wherein forward biasing the semiconductor diodefurther comprises applying a negative potential to an N-doped regionformed in or on the SOI substrate.